10 March 2025 – Miskolc
Summary of the lecture
The first thing that will have to be made clear, as we consider the relation of society with the elderly, is whether there is an agreed-on age limit to which we can relate this status. That is not easily done since old age is not a static fact but a process, just as growing up is. While the latter has, of course, its own attributes such as reaching the age of majority, the right to vote, obtaining a qualification or degree, and starting a family, in the case of old age it has only one threshold-the cessation of economic activity. Retirement normally being invested with a dramatic change in life, many are keener to associate the onset of old age with this act.
As Peng and Chan point out depending on the particular area of study, the definition of ’older workers’ varies from age 40 to above 65 years. Some put the threshold at 40 or 45 years because ’old’ has something to do with obsolete knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The use of 45 years or above is in line with the criterion indicated in the Age Discrimination in Employment Act in the USA. Others defined older workers as employees aged 50 years old and above.
Ageing policy can be broadly defined as a policy that addresses the quality of life, needs and social role of older people (65+), based on an intergenerational social consensus. Public policy on ageing should aim to ensure that care and services are available for older people and, with them, their formal and informal carers, to ensure that the available care capacities are in line with needs. However, this is not the case at present: as ageing progresses, caring capacities in capitalist societies are gradually being exhausted: a process Fraser calls the caring crisis (Fraser, 2016).
Because of greater life expectancy, improved health, and changes to pension systems we can differentiate between categories when we approach the issue:
Older workers: age discrimination, support of labour market participation.
People 65+: age discrimination, support of labour market participation, access to social services.
Oldest old: access to social services.
Exclusion correlates with income. Therefore, I have looked at the expenditures on the social system in the EU.
According to Eurostat data from 2018 (more recent data has not been published) – the largest expenditure on the social system in the European Union (EU) countries and selected other incurred, in order, by Finland, France, Italy and Germany. The lowest level of financing of social services was recorded in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and Turkey (data for TR from 2016).
Since its creation, the ILO has made it one of its priorities to find solutions for the problems of older workers. This concern has first focused on questions of social security and discrimination in employment: for example, a series of international standards on invalidity, old-age and survivors’ insurance were adopted in 1933. However, since 1961, a number of resolutions adopted by the Conference have underlined the need to deal more fully with the problems of older workers. For instance, the Conference, recognizing that serious employment difficulties facing older workers persisted, noted in 1970 that the instruments adopted so far did not deal specifically and systematically with the occupational problems of these workers. The Governing Body decided in November 1977 to include this matter on the agenda of the 65th Session of the Conference with a view to the adoption of one or more instruments. In 1979 the Employers’ spokesman regretted that no meeting of experts could be held in order to have a more detailed discussion on the problems of ageing workers, since not enough was yet known about the process of ageing, which was progressive and variable according to individuals, employment and countries, so that it was difficult to decide upon a definition.
In 2050, 80% of older people will be living in low- and middle-income countries. The pace of population ageing is much faster than in the past. In 2020, the number of people aged 60 years and older outnumbered children younger than 5 years. Between 2015 and 2050, the proportion of the world’s population over 60 years will nearly double from 12% to 22%. In 1980, there were 2 people older than 65 years for every 10 people of working age in the OECD. That number will have increased to slightly over 3 in 2020 and is projected to reach almost 6 by 2060. The working-age population, measured using fixed age thresholds, is projected to decline by more than one-third by 2060 in several countries.
As people live longer and healthier lives, many continue or need to work beyond the normal retirement age, and hence, there is an increase in labour market participation. Part of the motivation is provided by greater life expectancy, improved health, and changes to pension systems. Labour force participation of 65+ in Europe and Central Asia was 7,6% (male 10,6%, female 5,5%) in 2022. It has increased slightly since 2020 when it was 7,2%. Labour force participation of 55-64 in Europe and Central Asia was 61,4% (male 69,9%, female 53,8%) in 2022. It has increased slightly since 2020 when it was 59,4%.
1982, the UN General Assembly convened the first World Assembly on Ageing, which resulted in the development of the Vienna International Plan of Action (resolution 37/51), which is the first international document on ageing that guides thinking and formulates policies and programmes in this area.
A new stage in drawing public attention to the rights of older people and improving their protection was the development of the UN Principles for Older Persons in 1991.
The UN Principles define five main areas for the protection of older people:
independence: the principle stipulates that older people should have access to livelihoods, education, employment, social and health care. They have the right to live in conditions that allow them to maintain their independence and autonomy,
participation: older persons have the right to take an active part in the political, economic, social and cultural life of society, to influence decisions affecting them, and to continue to work or engage in community activities of their choice,
care: older people have the right to health care, social protection and care, including support to ensure adequate living conditions, as well as the right to access services that promote their physical, mental and emotional well-being,
self-fulfilment: the principles stipulate that older people have the right to develop their abilities, to acquire new knowledge and skills, and to benefit from cultural and educational resources,
dignity: older persons should live in conditions that guarantee respect for their dignity, regardless of their physical or mental condition, and be protected from exploitation and abuse.
The Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing consists of three priority areas, each of which provides specific recommendations and actions for governments and international organisations: 1. Ageing and Development, 2. Advancing Health and Well-Being in Old Age, 3. Ensuring Enabling and Supportive Environments.
The Convention on the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and the European Court of Human Rights are important mechanisms for the protection of the rights of the elderly people. However, the Convention does not regulate the rights of the elderly people separately, according to judicial practice, considering the special needs of the elderly people, the rights and freedoms protected by the Convention apply to them differently and give rise to specific obligations towards the state.
- Provision of health and welfare for elderly people
- Promotion and development of a supportive environment for the elderly people vs. social exclusion of elderly people
- Protection of elderly people from abuse/violence
- Development of elderly people and their active participation in social life
- Right to Fair Trial
Articles 8 and 10 of TFEU declare value orientation of the Union in respect to the principle of equal treatment when they stipulate that „in all its activities, the Union shall aim to eliminate inequalities, and to promote equality, between men and women” (Article 8 of TFEU) and „in defining and implementing its policies and activities, the Union shall aim to combat discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation” (Article 10 of TFEU). To defining value orientation of the European Union activity is also related Article 153 of TFEU which, among other things, names i) equality between men and women with regard to labour market opportunities and treatment at work, and ii) the combating of social exclusion, as fields in which the Union supports and complements the activities of the Member States. Directive 2000/78/EC, which provides a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation (together with discrimination on grounds of religion or belief, sexual orientation and disability).
Under European Union secondary law, the prohibition of discrimination on grounds of age is an important part of achieving the objectives of achieving the desired employment rate and promoting a diverse workforce. However, in certain circumstances, differential treatment on grounds of age can be justified, and the reasons should lie in particular in the application of employment and labour market support policies.
The Hungarian ageing index – the ratio of those aged 65 and over to those under 14 – has almost doubled in 30 years (Central Statistics Office, KSH, 2012), while the proportion of the oldest old, those aged 85 and over, has doubled in 20 years. It is expected that the share of the population aged 65+ will increase from 20.31% in 2021 to 27% in 2050. The sudden growth in the number of people aged 65 and above creates the urgent need for a smooth transition into all benefits given to them, but this has already become increasingly difficult to sustain, especially in unforeseen periods of resilience such as during the worsening Covid19 epidemic that started in the first half of 2020.
Act III of 1993 on Social Administration and Social Benefits (Act on Social Administration and Social Benefits) refers to the rule of care:
§ 2 (1) Everyone is responsible for himself/herself.
(2) If the individual is unable to care for himself/herself, he/she shall be assisted by relatives, according to their abilities and possibilities, in the order of the rules on family support of Act V of 2013 on the Civil Code (hereinafter: Civil Code).
(3) If the individual is unable to care for him/herself and the relatives fail to fulfil their duty of care under paragraph (2), the municipal authority of the place of residence of the individual shall have a duty of care under the conditions laid down by law.
(4) If the individual is unable to care for him/herself and the relatives fail to fulfil the duty of care under paragraph (2) and the local authority fails to fulfil the duty of care under paragraph (3), the State shall have a duty of care under conditions laid down by law.
(5) The State and the municipal government shall cooperate with church and non-governmental organisations in the performance of their duties in connection with the provision of social care.
(6) The State and the municipal government shall be responsible for the establishment of the system of social institutions and measures and the provision of their operational framework in the manner provided for in this Act.
The system of social services (public administration, cash benefits, services, entitlements, numbers of places, registers, etc.) is regulated by Act III of 1993 on Social Administration and Social Benefits (Act on Social Administration and Social Benefits).
Among the basic social services, the elderly are affected by the village and caretaker service, catering, home help services, signalling home help, day care for the elderly (falu- és tanyagondnoki szolgáltatás, étkeztetés, házi segítségnyújtás, jelzőrendszeres házi segítségnyújtás, idősek nappali ellátása). Specialised care services include care institutions, including homes for the elderly and temporary accommodation (care homes for the elderly – az idősek otthona, illetve az átmeneti elhelyezést biztosító intézmények, idősek gondozóháza).
Among basic social services, local authorities are obliged to provide meals and home help as a public service. In addition, day care for the elderly is provided for a population of over 3,000, and care homes for the elderly for a population of over 30,000. The link between the provision of data and population size has nothing to do with how many people actually need the services. In addition to municipalities, central government and non-state bodies (e.g. churches, companies, non-profit organisations) are also involved in the provision of public services.
One of the most vulnerable groups in terms of care is the elderly living alone. According to the 2016 microcensus, 31% of the population aged 65 and over lived alone (554,000 people). 11% of women over 65 and 21% of men do not have a living child who could provide care if needed, a proportion that worsens with age. Women are over-represented: 40% of women over 65 live alone compared with 17% of men. But living alone is not only the result of widowhood, but also of an increasing divorce rate. While in 1990 17% of men aged 65 and over and 9% of women lived alone, in 2016 27% of men and 16% of women were divorced This is an important trend because the role of the spouse as caregiver is being valorised in the very old (the very old no longer care for their parents but for their spouse).
According to WHO data, in 2017 there were 10 million people with dementia in Europe, which is expected to double by 2030. It is estimated that in Hungary, dementia currently affects around 200-250,000 people. The terminal stage of the disease is associated with very high care needs (24-hour monitoring) and costs, which is a burden for both families and the public care system.
Overall, in 2015, home help was available in 91% of settlements, and meals in 86% – despite the fact that all municipalities are obliged to provide it. Many municipalities are only able to provide these two services as so-called „involved municipalities”, i.e. carers come from a central (sponsoring) municipality. Based on this, home help is provided locally in a third of municipalities nationwide, while meals are provided in half of them (11% and 37% in small municipalities). The provision of clubs for the elderly is provided in 41% of municipalities, but only in a third of municipalities with less than 1000 inhabitants, although it is not mandatory for them.
Waiting list report tells us a lot about exclusion of elderly. (See:https://szocialisportal.hu/varakozok-201706/#:~:text=Ell%C3%A1t%C3%A1si%20forma%20%C3%A9s,nszi.gov.hu)
https://szocialisportal.hu/varakozok-201706/)
The highest net minimum 5 salaries, i.e. over € 2,000 per month, are paid to social workers from Finland, Iceland and the UK (including England). The minimum salaries between € 1,000 and € 2,000 are available to social workers from Italy, Germany and France. A lower salary of between € 500 and € 999 is foreseen in Spain, Portugal and Greece. Workers are sentenced to less than € 500 of a minimum wage in Turkey, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Belarus and Armenia. The group with the worst paid social workers in terms of average net monthly salary (below € 1000) is again: Greece, Turkey, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Armenia and Belarus.
In countries such as Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey, where the overall level of expenditure on social assistance is significantly lower than the European average, the lowest level of salaries of social workers is also noticeable. This dependence, which may only appear to be superficial, cannot be seen in the case of countries with high and close to average social spending. So, there are countries such as Iceland and the United Kingdom, which, although they spend slightly below the European average on social services, pay their social workers quite clearly more than other countries.
On average, 34.3% of the population in 20 European countries were informal caregivers and 7.6% were intensive caregivers (providing care for minimum 11 h a week). Countries with high numbers of caregivers had low numbers of intensive caregivers. Caregiving was most prevalent among women, 50–59-year-olds, non-employed – especially those doing housework – and religious persons. Determinants of providing care hardly differed by gender. Caregivers, especially female and intensive caregivers, reported lower mental well-being than non-caregivers.
The social situation of family carers on care allowance was investigated by TÁRKI in 2015 through a representative sample survey. As the survey is unique and the only one that provides a credible picture of the situation of informal carers in Hungary, it is presented in a slightly longer version. The final research report concludes that 52% of the sample received basic benefits, 28% received higher benefits and 21% received higher benefits. There are significant regional differences: Budapest has the lowest proportion of recipients per 10,000 inhabitants, while the most disadvantaged regions of Northern Hungary, Northern Great Plain and Southern Great Plain have the highest proportion of recipients. 74% of them are women (the more intensive the care needs, the more the task is left to women). They are typically in the 40-50 age group, 40% live in a municipality and have a similar level of education to the population as a whole.
In the civil sphere, three basic types of human activity have evolved in organisational terms. The economic company has only purely economic functions and as a guiding principle, it must make as much profit as possible. This is a social organisation that aims at social, cultural, etc. objectives. Co-operative society could manage the integration of economic function with the ones of a cultural, social, and community-organizing nature. The social cooperative represents the most recent development of the law concerning the cooperative form, distinct from the classical cooperative because its activities are dominated by the aim of improving the situation of the most disadvantaged parts of society. Law puts into the category of social cooperatives also those cooperatives that create working conditions for unemployed members aimed at improving the social situation of their members, and school cooperatives, which organize work for students.
The Hungarian Pensioners’ Cooperative is an indispensable movement within the context of satisfaction with the needs and improvement of the quality of life of older persons in this country. The social and labour aspects of such a cooperative can be addressed from a number of angles, for instance, social inclusion, economic stability, and the wider labour market of older adults.
According to the first joint survey of the National Association of Hungarian Lenders, the National Association of Student Enterprises and the National Association of Public Interest Pensioners’ Cooperatives, the sector generated HUF 200 billion in turnover in the first eight months of this year, a quarter of which was generated by student and public interest pensioners’ cooperatives. Compared to the same period last year, the number of students taking up jobs has increased, while public interest pensioners’ cooperatives generated more income in the year to September than last year.
https://kozesz.hu/erosodik-az-atipikus-foglalkoztatas-jelentosege/ (Accessed: 26 October 2024)
The value of cooperatives in general has been underlined by Council Regulation No 1435/2003 of 22 July 2003 on the Statute for a European Cooperative Society (SCE), explaining that cooperatives are first of all groups of persons or legal entities with particular operating principles different from those of other economic agents. Such principles will include the democratic structure and control, and the distribution of the net profit of the financial year on an equitable basis.
